![]() Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) are typically used to study organelle ultrastructure. ![]() Mitochondria and ER can be imaged by light microscopy and electron microscopy (EM), but despite advances in light microscopy imaging, EM is unparalleled in providing high-resolution images with great ultrastructural detail and 3D visualization. Thus, they may serve as targets for pharmaceutical treatments of cancer and neurodegenerative and viral diseases. Mitochondria and the ER are essential for cell growth and survival, and they impact many biological functions. ![]() Because mitochondria have a role in apoptosis and control of apoptosis is a component of cancer, a better understanding of mitochondria is critical for cancer treatment. Further, calcium levels play a role in the regulation of the citric acid cycle and calcium signaling that are associated with apoptosis. Mitochondrial maintenance of calcium homeostasis is also associated with cellular apoptosis cellular calcium levels affect ER calcium levels, which in turn regulate mitosis. Changes in mitochondrial ultrastructures are associated with changes in chemical pathways that regulate calcium, potassium, and other biomolecules. For example, dynamin-related protein-1 (DRP-1) regulates mitochondrial fission and is associated with the early stages of apoptosis. While oxidative phosphorylation in mitochondria is critical for generating ATP, these organelles have functions beyond energetics. Because these organelles play major roles in regulating homeostasis and ensuring organism survival, it is important to study the relationships between their structure and function. Research on the physiology and metabolism of organelles is critical to understanding vital cellular processes such as apoptosis, respiration, and mitosis, and metabolic organelles such as mitochondria and endoplasmic reticulum (ER) have been well characterized.
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